Method and device for making documents secure using unique imprint derived from unique marking variations

ABSTRACT

The document identification method includes:
         a step of generating an image,   a step of marking a plurality of documents to form the image on each document with unique variations on each document, the majority of the images formed on the documents presenting a physical anti-copy characteristic satisfying a predefined criterion such that the characteristic of the majority of the copies that can be produced based on these images do not satisfy the pre-defined criterion,   a step of characterizing the variations to form a unique imprint of the mark formed, for each document and   a step of memorizing the unique imprint.

This invention concerns a process and a device for securing documents.It envisages, in particular, identifying a document in a unique way,authenticating it, i.e. being able to detect its copying and/orcarrying, on the document, information relative to this document, forexample information identifying an owner of intellectual property rightsconnected to the document and/or its place of manufacture. The termdocument includes all data carriers, for example hardcopy documents,blueprints, packaging, manufactured items, molded items and cards, e.g.identification cards or bankcards.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The different types of document printing are divided into two groups:one known as “static”, in which each document receives the same printedmark, for example an “offset” analog print process, and the second knownas “serialized” digital, in which each document receives anindividualized item of information, for example an ink-jet print processcontrolled by an individualization program, and a process for printing aserial number.

For offset printing, which is one of the most commonly used printmethods for boxes and packaging, a plate is generated for each colorprinted in the document, and this plate's content is printed hundreds ofthousands, even millions, of times. In this case, the same content,inserted on the printing plate, is printed on every document for everyprint. Flexography, typography and gravure printing are other examplesof what are called static printing methods. In static printing,documents cannot be identified individually, in theory, since the samemark is printed each time. In addition, when the printing is static andmakes use of analog processes, it is more difficult to control the exactnumber of documents printed. The risks of counterfeiting throughprinting a larger quantity of documents than the owner of the rights hasauthorized are therefore significant. How can you ensure that the numberof prints specified by the manufacturing order, often less than theplate's usage limit, has been respected? How can you ensure that all theunused prints (start or end of the series, faults, order cancelled, etc)and all the plates, films and other objects that allow the documents tobe reconstituted never fall into the hands of counterfeiters?

Serialized printing, by allowing each document to be precisely andunequivocally identified, is generally preferable to static printing. Ineffect, each identifier being only printed once in serialized printing,reading a double means that an alarm can be triggered: a double is anidentifier that is identical to a previously read identifier.

In a general way, there are several points to be made secure in order toprotect identifier and/or anti-copying marks: the source file, possiblythe CAP file that contains it, and, in the case of offset printing, theplates and any films.

It is possible to perform the equivalent of serialized printing of ananti-copying mark on an item already printed statically by, in a secondstep, printing a unique code or serial number that is uncoded or,preferably, encrypted. This serialized printing can, for example, takethe form of a two-dimensional bar code. Outwardly, this procedure makesit possible to track each document individually and at the same timeretain a sure way of detecting copies. Stolen documents that have notreceived the serialized print would not bear a valid identifier.

This approach does not, however, solve all the problems. In effect,while a wrongdoer cannot identify the falsified documents as the printerwould have done, the unique code printed by the serialization printer,generally offering a limited print quality, is not protected againstcopying.

Counterfeiters having in their possession documents to be identified asauthentic can therefore copy one or more valid unique codes and re-copythem onto documents to be identified as authentic.

The prior state of the art contains several methods exploitingmeasurable physical characteristics in order to characterize andidentify each document in a unique way. In general, the measurablephysical characteristics chosen are of a random nature, and according tothe actual state of the art and technologies cannot be copied, at leastnot in a cost-effective way. These methods enables all the documentsconsidered “valid” to be controlled: only those documents for which thephysical characteristics, comprising a unique set, have been memorizedare considered valid.

For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,423,415 describes a method enabling a sheetof paper to be identified according to its local transparencycharacteristics. Several other procedures are based on inputting uniqueand non-reproducible physical attributes of the material in order togenerate a unique and non-transferable signature of said document. Forexample, documents WO 2006 016114 and US 2006/104103 are based on themeasurement of the diffraction pattern induced by a laser ray applied toa precise area of the object.

Although they offer an interesting solution to the problems mentionedabove, the approaches based on extracting a signature from the materialare difficult to use for a number of reasons. Firstly, recordingsignatures when the documents are produced requires a costly opticalreader and is difficult to integrate into production lines. These lattermay, moreover, have very high working speeds. In a general way, it seemsthat these techniques are only applicable to small-scale production. Inaddition, the reader used for checking, in the field, is also too costlyfor a number of applications. It is also bulky and not easy to use,while often the checks in the field must be done rapidly andunobtrusively. Finally, it is not possible to extract a unique signaturefor all materials: glass and objects that are too reflective areexcluded, in particular, at least for measurements of a laser'sdiffraction.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention aims to remedy these inconveniences and, in particular,the difficulties and limitations of applying identification methodsbased on the unique physical attributes of the document's matter.

The digital authentication codes, also called “DAC” below, are digitalimages that, once marked on a medium, for example by printing or localmodification of the medium, are designed so that some of theircharacteristics, generally automatically measurable from a capturedimage, are modified if a marked image is copied. The digitalauthentication codes are generally based on the degradation of one ormore signals sensitive to copying during the copy step, a signal beingborne by image elements with measurable characteristics sensitive tocopying. Certain types of digital authentication codes can also containan item of information allowing the document containing it to beidentified or tracked.

There are several types of digital authentication codes. The copydetection patterns, also called “CDP” below, are dense images, generallyof a pseudo-random nature. Their reading principle is based on an imagecomparison in order to measure an index of similarity (or dissimilarity)between the original copy detection pattern and the copy detectionpattern captured, for example by an image sensor: if this captured imageis a copy it will have a lower index of similarity than if it is anoriginal.

Like the two-dimensional bar codes, the secured information matrices,also called “SIM” below, are images designed to carry a large quantityof information in a robust way. However, unlike two-dimensional barcodes, secured information matrices are sensitive to copying. Onreading, an error rate is measured for the coded message extracted fromthe matrix, a rate that is higher for the copies than the originals,which allows these copies to be distinguished from original prints.

Unless marked in a special way, for example with invisible ink, the copydetection patterns and secured information matrices are visible. Inaddition, marking the copy detection patterns and secured informationmatrices in an invisible way is not always possible, due to cost ormanufacturing constraints. The visibility of an anti-copying mark can bea disadvantage in terms of esthetics and, in certain cases, securitysince the counterfeiter is informed of their presence.

There are also digital authentication codes that are naturally invisibleor at least difficult to see.

For example, some digital marks (known under the name “watermarks”)integrated into printed images are designed so as to be damaged when theprinted image is reproduced, for example by photocopying. Themeasurement of the digital watermark's degree of deterioration, lower inthe original print than in a copy of it, makes it possible to detectthese copies.

The combination of several watermarks with different degrees ofsensitivity to copying makes it possible, by comparing the respectiveenergy levels, to detect the copies. Integrating digital watermarks inthe production procedures of documents is, however, more complex, whichlimits their use: in effect, unlike copy detection patterns and securedinformation matrices, the digital watermark cannot be simply “added” tothe image; the digital watermark is, in fact, a complex function of themessage to be added and of the original image, the digital watermark'senergy being locally adjusted according to the original image's maskingproperties. Integrating digital watermarks in documents or productsentails sending the source image to a marking/printing centralprocessing unit that integrates the digital watermark and sends back amarked image. This procedure is not very practical, because of the oftenlarge size of the files and related image security problems. Incontrast, for marking/printing with a copy detection pattern or securedinformation matrix, the source image does not have to be sent to themarking/printing central processing unit: conversely, it is the image ofthe copy detection pattern or secured information matrix, generally of asmall size, for example several kilobytes, that is sent to the holder ofthe image files that will be affixed onto the document or product. Inaddition, it is very difficult to stabilize the reading of digitalwatermarks, which makes the determination of the copy from the originalof a document more random. In effect, the risks of error are generallynoticeably higher with digital watermarks than with copy detectionpatterns and secured information matrices.

There are also asymmetric modulation spatial marking processes, alsocalled “AMSM” below, such as those described in documents WO 2006 087351and CH 694 233. Just like digital watermarks, AMSMs allow documents tobe marked invisibly, or at least unobtrusively. AMSMs are generallypatterns of dots, which are added as an additional layer to the documentto be marked. For example, in the case of an offset print process, anadditional plate bearing only the AMSMs is overprinted on the document.In this way, the AMSMs are more easily integrated than digitalwatermarks into the document production process, the source image notbeing required by the marking/printing central processing unit. However,unlike copy detection patterns and secured information matrices, theAMSMs generally require an additional plate and ink, which makes theiruse more complex and more costly. In addition, just like digitalwatermarks the AMSM detection methods can be imprecise. In fact, it isknown that the marking/printing entails an analog uncertainty concerningthe precise positioning of the marked image. This uncertainty, at thelevel of the dimension of the printed elementary dot, even below this,has a not insignificant effect on the detection of copies when thesurface marked has a significant size. However, AMSM detection methods,based on auto-correlation and cross-correlation, cannot take thisuncertainty of position into account. This increases the imprecision inreading the mark and, as a consequence, reduces the ability todistinguish between the originals and the copies.

When the capture is done by flat-bed scanners, allowing both a largecapture surface and a sufficient capture resolution, the AMSMs enablesimple copies to be detected, for example photocopies, even high-qualityphotocopies done by capture with a high-precision or high-resolutionscanner, followed by reprinting. Nevertheless, in the face of adetermined counterfeiter, AMSMs offer reduced protection againstcopying. In effect, after the high-resolution capture the counterfeitercan use manual image processing tools, such as “Photoshop” (registeredtrademark), possibly combined with automatic image processing tools(such as “Matlab”, registered trademark), in order to restore all thedetected dots in their initial form. In the case of a high-quality copy,the dots will no longer be weaker in the copied mark than in theoriginal mark, and the copy has a strong chance of not being detected asa copy. Thus, a determined counterfeiter can generally make an identicalcopy of the information contained in an AMSM, which means that thismethod cannot be considered secure in the long term.

The different types of document printing are divided into two groups:one known as “static”, in which each document receives the same printedmark, for example an “offset” analog print process, and the second knownas “serialized” digital, in which each document receives anindividualized item of information, for example an ink-jet print processcontrolled by an individualization program, and a process for printing aserial number. For the most commonly used print methods (in particularoffset), the AMSMs (and other digital authentication codes) are printedstatically. As the types of printing most commonly used for AMSMs anddigital authentication codes are static, it is not possible to vary themark and the contained message on each print.

Nevertheless, it may be desirable to be able to uniquely characterize,and thus identify, each print from a single source image.

To this end, according to a first aspect, the present inventionenvisages a document identification process, that comprises:

-   -   a step of generating an image,    -   a step of marking a plurality of documents to form said image on        each said document with unique variations on each document, the        majority of the images formed on said documents presenting a        physical anti-copy characteristic satisfying a pre-defined        criterion such that said characteristic of the majority of the        copies that can be produced based on these images do not satisfy        said pre-defined criterion,    -   a step of characterizing said variations to form a unique        imprint of the mark formed, for each said document and    -   a step of memorizing said unique imprint.

Thanks to these provisions, the same mark, which represents the imagegenerated in advance, makes it possible to both detect a copy of anoriginal document and individualize each document among all theoriginals. This benefit is particularly advantageous since it is notnecessary to add an identifier to each document, which is burdensome, inorder to recognize it among all the originals. Thus, the presentinvention makes it possible to generate and use images designed to allowthe identification of each document through the unique characteristicsof each marking, for example by printing.

According to particular features, said image only comprises two colors.

Thanks to these provisions, as a result of the contrast between the dotsrepresenting the image, its surface can be reduced and its processingmade simpler, and therefore faster. Also, the image is integrated moreeasily into the majority of print processes.

According to particular features, frequency analysis is utilized duringthe step characterizing variations. Thanks to these provisions, thecharacterization is less sensitive to slight, for examplesubpixel-level, variations in positions of an image sensor enablingthis.

According to particular features, a secret key is utilized during thestep characterizing variations. Thanks to these provisions, thecharacterization is itself protected in its realization principle.

According to particular features, during the memorization step, theimprint is stored in a database. Thanks to these provisions, during thelife and movements of the document, an imprint recognition device canmake use of the database or, alternatively, images of documents orimprints can be sent to a means of comparison with the imprints storedin this database in order to obtain an identifier of the document.

According to particular features, during the memorization step, thedocument is marked with a mark representing the imprint affixedindividually on the document. Thanks to these provisions, a recognitiondevice does not need a database to identify the document. It is notedthat the mark representing the imprint can be a bar code, atwo-dimensional bar code or a datamatrix (registered trademark), forexample.

According to particular features, said mark representing the imprint isencrypted. According to particular features, the encryption utilized toencrypt the imprint uses a public key. Thanks to each of theseprovisions, the imprint's content is protected by encryption, this beingespecially robust when it utilizes a public key.

According to particular features, said image is designed to be degradedduring copying of a document obtained by the marking step.

In this way, the same object combines off-line traceability andauthentication properties for digital authentication codes with uniqueidentifier pattern characterization properties.

Another objective of the present invention consists of using anidentifier pattern's imprint in “identification” mode, in which theimprint generated by capturing the image of an identifier pattern iscompared against a set of pre-calculated imprints in order to determinewhether it matches one of said pre-calculated imprints.

Another objective of the present invention consists of using the datacontained in the digital authentication code used as identifier patternin order to facilitate the search for the related imprint in a database,the data making it possible to determine a sub-set in which the searchwill be carried out.

Another objective of the present invention consists of using anidentifier pattern's imprint in “check” mode, in which the imprintgenerated is only compared against to pre-calculated imprint of saiddocument, the latter being, for example, affixed to the document or ableto be derived from the document's data (for example, serial number andlink to a database).

According to a second aspect, the present invention envisages a documentprocessing process, that comprises:

-   -   a step of capturing an image of a mark printed on said document,    -   a step of extracting a physical anti-copy characteristic of said        image,    -   a step of determining whether said characteristic satisfies a        pre-determined criterion,    -   a step of extracting unique variations of said printed mark by        processing said image,    -   a step of determining an imprint of said variations and    -   a step of determining whether said imprint corresponds to a        memorized imprint.

According to a third aspect, the present invention envisages an objectauthentication process, characterized in that it comprises:

-   -   a step of affixing a mark to said object in such a way that the        affixed mark presents unpredictable errors due to the physical        characteristics of the means utilized during the marking step,    -   a step of capturing an image of said mark and    -   a step of determining physical characteristics of said        unpredictable errors by processing said image.

Thanks to these provisions, even though the same marking process isutilized, without modification, for example by etching or printing, onmany objects, the physical characteristics of the marking errors make itpossible to give each mark, and thus each associated object, a uniqueidentification. To some extent, the mark comprises a unique fingerprint.The utilization of the process that is the subject of the presentinvention is therefore both inexpensive and individualized.

According to particular features, the process as described in briefabove comprises, in addition, a step memorizing an item of informationrepresenting the physical characteristics of the unpredictable errors.Thanks to these provisions, when a new image capture is carried out witha marked object and new image processing is applied, the result of thisimage processing can be compared to the memorized information in orderto retrieve the object's identification.

According to particular features, during the marking step, a mark isaffixed that is formed from a matrix of dots with a resolution such thatat least two per cent of the mark's dots are erroneous compared to theoriginal dot matrix. Thanks to these provisions, the error quantity issignificant and allows the mark and the object to be uniquelyidentified.

According to particular features, during the marking step, a mark isaffixed representing data relating to the object that bears it.

Thanks to these provisions, the reading of the data relating to theobject that bears the mark provides an origin and/or means of access toa database of physical characteristics of the errors.

According to particular features, during the marking step the markaffected with the unpredictable errors is affixed with a resolution suchthat copying it increases by at least fifty per cent the level of errorsin the copied mark compared to the original mark.

According to particular features, during the image processing stepcharacteristics of the distribution of said errors in said mark aredetermined, as physical characteristics of the unpredictable errors.Thanks to these provisions, whatever the conditions in which a new imageof said mark is captured, the error distribution characteristics can beretrieved.

According to particular features, the authentication process asdescribed in brief above comprises, in addition, a robust marking stepduring which a robust mark is affixed to said object bearing informationrelating to the physical characteristics of the unpredictable errors.Because this second mark is robust, it can resist slavish copying andenable the object to be identified.

According to particular features, during the robust marking step, a codekey is utilized for the physical characteristics of the unpredictableerrors.

According to particular features, said code key is a public key.

Thanks to each of these provisions, the unique identity of the mark, andtherefore of the object to which it is affixed, can be determined byutilizing the robust mark.

According to a fourth aspect, the present invention envisages an objectauthentication device, characterized in that it comprises:

-   -   a means of affixing a mark to said object in such a way that the        affixed mark presents unpredictable errors due to the physical        characteristics of said means of affixing the mark,    -   a means of capturing an image of said mark and    -   a means of determining physical characteristics of said        unpredictable errors by processing said image.

The present invention also aims, through some of its aspects, to remedyat the same time the weaknesses or limits of use for digital watermarks,AMSMs, secured information matrices and copy detection patterns.

To this end, according to a fifth aspect, the present inventionenvisages a process for securing a document, characterized in that itcomprises:

-   -   a step of printing a distribution of dots on said document, said        printing, as a result of unanticipated unknowns in printing,        causing an unpredictable variation, dot by dot, of at least one        geometric characteristic of the printed dots and    -   prior to said print step, a step generating said distribution of        dots so that:        -   at least half the dots of said distribution are not            laterally juxtaposed to four other dots of said dot            distribution, and        -   at least one dimension of at least one part of the dots of            said distribution of dots is of the same order of magnitude            as the average for the absolute value of said unpredictable            variation.

By means of at least this aspect, the present invention thus makes itpossible to exploit the individual geometrical characteristics of themarked dots, and to measure the variations in the characteristics ofthese dots so as to integrate them in a metric (i.e. determine whetherthey satisfy at least one criterion applied to a measurement) allowingthe originals to be distinguished from copies or non-legitimate prints.

According to particular features, during the step generating the dotdistribution, more than half the dots do not touch any other dot of saiddistribution.

Thus, unlike secured information matrices and copy detection patterns,and like AMSMs and digital watermarks, the present invention makes itpossible to insert invisible or unobtrusive marks. In addition, thesemarks are easier to integrate than digital watermarks and AMSMs. Theyenable more reliable copy detection than digital watermarks and they canbe characterized individually in a static print process, which allowsthe unique identification of each document.

According to particular features, during the step of generating the dotdistribution, dots are produced of which at least one geometriccharacteristic is variable, the geometric amplitude of the generatedvariation having the order of magnitude of the average dimension of atleast one part of the dots.

The present invention thus makes it possible to generate and use, in anoptimal way, images of variable characteristic dot patterns, also called“VCDPs” below, designed to make copying by identical reconstitution moredifficult, even impossible.

According to particular features, said generated variation correspondsto a variation in the position of dots, in at least one direction, withrespect to a position where the centers of the dots are aligned onparallel lines perpendicular to said direction and separated from atleast one dimension of said dots in that direction.

The present invention thus makes it possible to exploit the preciseposition characteristics of the dots, and to measure the very limitedvariations in the precise position of the dots so as to integrate themin a metric allowing the originals to be distinguished from copies.

According to particular features, said generated variation correspondsto a variation in at least one dimension of dots, in at least onedirection with respect to an average dimension of said dots in thatdirection.

According to particular features, said generated variation correspondsto a variation in shape of the dots with respect to an average shape ofsaid dots in that direction.

According to particular features, during the generation step, said dotdistribution represents a coded item of information.

The present invention thus allows information to be stored or carried inthe distribution of dots with variable characteristics. For an equalquantity of information content, the dot distributions can cover asignificantly smaller surface area than AMSMs, for example severalsquare millimeters, which allows their high-resolution capture by mobilecapture tools, and consequently great precision in reading.

According to particular features, the process as described in briefabove comprises a step of capturing the image of the printed dotdistribution and a step of determining a unique signature of saidprinted distribution, according to said unpredictable print variation.

The present invention thus makes it possible to use the variationsbelonging to each print so as to uniquely characterize each of theprints of a single source variable characteristic dot pattern.

According to particular features, the process as described in briefabove comprises a step determining a magnitude representing theunpredictable print variation, the step generating the dot distributionbeing a function of said magnitude.

According to particular features, the process as described in briefabove comprises a step of detecting a copy according to the magnituderepresenting the unpredictable print variation, said copy detection stepcomprising a step of comparing said representative magnitude against apre-defined value, and a step of deciding the authenticity of thedocument according to the result of the comparison.

According to a sixth aspect, this invention envisages a process forsecuring a document against copying causing, as a result ofunanticipated unknowns in copying, a so-called unpredictable “copy”variation, dot by dot, of at least one geometric characteristic of theprinted dots, characterized in that it comprises:

-   -   a step of printing a distribution of dots on said document, said        printing causing, as a result of unanticipated unknowns in        printing, a so-called unpredictable “print” variation, dot by        dot, of said geometric characteristic of the printed dots, the        average magnitude of the unpredictable print variation being of        the same order of magnitude as the average minimum magnitude of        the unpredictable variation of said copies and    -   a step of determining a physical magnitude representing the        unpredictable print variation.

It is noted that the step determining the physical magnitude may bepreliminary to the print step, as in the process that is the subject ofthe fifth aspect of the present invention, or after a step printingsamples with a view to the characterization of the print step.

According to a seventh aspect, the present invention envisages a devicefor securing a document, characterized in that it comprises:

-   -   a means of printing a distribution of dots on said document,        said printing, as a result of unanticipated unknowns in        printing, causing an unpredictable variation, dot by dot, of at        least one geometric characteristic of the printed dots and    -   a means of generating said distribution of dots designed, prior        to printing, to generate said dot distribution so that:        -   at least half the dots of said distribution are not            laterally juxtaposed to four other dots of said dot            distribution, and        -   at least one dimension of at least one part of the dots of            said distribution of dots is of the same order of magnitude            as the average for the absolute value of said unpredictable            variation.

According to an eight aspect, the present invention envisages a devicefor securing a document against copying causing, as a result ofunanticipated unknowns in copying, a so-called unpredictable “copy”variation, dot by dot, of at least one geometric characteristic of theprinted dots, characterized in that it comprises:

-   -   a means of printing a distribution of dots on said document,        said printing causing, as a result of unanticipated unknowns in        printing, a so-called unpredictable “print” variation, dot by        dot, of said geometric characteristic of the printed dots, the        average magnitude of the unpredictable print variation being of        the same order of magnitude as the average minimum magnitude of        the unpredictable variation of said copies and    -   a means of determining a physical magnitude representing the        unpredictable print variation.

According to a ninth aspect, the present invention envisages a processfor reading a distribution of dots on a document, characterized in thatit comprises:

-   -   a step of capturing an image of said distribution of dots,    -   a step of determining a physical magnitude representing a        geometric variation of dots of said distribution and    -   a step of determining the authenticity of said dot distribution,        according to said physical magnitude.

According to a tenth aspect, the present invention envisages a devicefor reading a distribution of dots on a document, characterized in thatit comprises:

-   -   a means of capturing an image of said distribution of dots,    -   a means of determining a physical magnitude representing a        geometric variation of dots of said distribution and    -   a means of determining the authenticity of said dot        distribution, according to said physical magnitude.

According to an eleventh aspect, the present invention envisages aprogram that can be loaded in a computer system, said program containinginstructions allowing the process that is the subject of the presentinvention, as described in brief above, to be utilized.

According to a twelfth aspect, the present invention envisages a datacarrier that can be read by a computer or microprocessor, removable ornot, holding the instructions of a computer program, characterized inthat it allows the process that is the subject of the present invention,as described in brief above, to be utilized.

As the particular characteristics, advantages and aims of thissecuritization process, these securitization devices, this process andthese devices for reading, this computer program and this data carrierare similar to those of the securitization process, as described inbrief above, they are not repeated here.

The different aspects of the present invention and their respectivefundamental, preferential and/or particular characteristics are destinedto be combined into a single process or device for securing a document.In this way, the particular features of each of the aspects of thepresent invention constitute particular features of the other aspects ofthe present invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Other advantages, aims and characteristics of this invention will becomeapparent from the description that will follow, made, as an example thatis in no way limiting, with reference to the drawings included in anappendix, in which:

FIG. 1 represents a digital mark enlarged by a factor of about 20,

FIG. 2 represents the mark illustrated in FIG. 1, after printing,enlarged,

FIG. 3 represents a photocopy of the printed mark illustrated in FIG. 2,enlarged,

FIG. 4 shows a high-quality copy of the printed mark illustrated in FIG.2, enlarged,

FIG. 5 represents, enlarged, a VCDP, the variable characteristic being,in this case, a dot height,

FIG. 6 represents an enlargement, by a factor of about 200, of a part ofa VCDP of FIG. 5, once printed,

FIG. 7 shows two enlarged prints of a single VCDP having a constant dotsize before printing,

FIG. 8 represents, enlarged, a secured information matrix comprising, inits center, a VCDP,

FIG. 9 represents, enlarged, a secured information matrix that issurrounded by a VCDP,

FIG. 10 represents, enlarged, a VCDP the four corners of which consistof a dot surrounded by four dots that are close,

FIG. 11 represents, enlarged, a VCDP with lines of dots on the foursides,

FIG. 12 represents, enlarged, a part of a VCDP in the form of a grid,

FIG. 13 represents the absolute value of the two-dimensional Fouriertransform of the VCDP shown in FIG. 12,

FIG. 14 represents, enlarged, a detail of a VCDP representing a codeditem of information,

FIG. 15 represents, schematically, a particular embodiment of the devicethat is the subject of this invention,

FIGS. 16A to 20 represent, in the form of logical diagrams, stepsutilized in particular embodiments of the various aspects of the processthat is the subject of this invention,

FIG. 21 represents an enlarged part of a high-density VCDP,

FIG. 22 represents an enlarged part of a dot dimension gradient VCDP,

FIG. 23 represents, in the form of a logical diagram, steps utilized ina particular embodiment of the process that is the subject of thisinvention,

FIG. 24 represents, in an enlarged view, a digital identifier patternutilized in particular embodiments of the process that is the subject ofthis invention,

FIG. 25 represents, in an enlarged view, the digital identifier patternof FIG. 24, once printed on an object, in a first print of a series,

FIG. 26 represents, in an enlarged view, the digital identifier patternof FIG. 24, once printed on an object, in a second print of a series,

FIG. 27 represents a discrete cosine transform of an image captured fromone of the printed identifier patterns represented in FIGS. 25 and 26,

FIGS. 28A to 28C represent, in the form of logical diagrams, stepsutilized in particular embodiments of the process that is the subject ofthis invention and

FIG. 29 represents a distribution of the scores for two groups ofidentifier patterns utilized in particular embodiments of the processthat is the subject of this invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Before giving the details of the various particular embodiments of thisinvention, the definitions that will be used in the description aregiven below.

-   -   “information matrix”: this is a machine-readable physical        representation of a message, generally affixed on a solid        surface (unlike watermarks or digital watermarks, which modify        the values of the pixels of a design to be printed). The        information matrix definition encompasses, for example, 2D bar        codes, one-dimensional bar codes and other less intrusive means        of representing information, such as “Dataglyphs” (data        marking);    -   “document”: this is any (physical) object whatsoever bearing an        information matrix;    -   “marking” or “printing”: any process by which you go from a        digital image (including an information matrix, a document, etc)        to its representation in the real world, this representation        generally being made on a surface: this includes, in a        non-exclusive way, ink-jet, laser, offset and thermal printing,        and also embossing, laser engraving and hologram generation.        More complex processes are also included, such as molding, in        which the digital image is first engraved in the mold, then        molded in each object. Note that a “molded” image can be        considered to have three dimensions in the physical world even        if its digital representation comprises two dimensions. Note        also that several of the processes mentioned include several        transformations, for example standard offset printing (unlike        “computer-to-plate” offset), including the creation of a film,        said film serving to create a plate, said plate being used in        printing. Other processes also allow an item of information to        be printed in the non-visible domain, either by using        frequencies outside the visible spectrum, or by inscribing the        information inside the surface, etc.    -   “Identifier pattern” or “IP”: an image printed from a (digital)        source image, designed and printed so that each of said source        image's prints can be identified with high probability.    -   “Unique characteristics”: the unique physical attributes of an        identifier pattern, allowing it to be distinguished from any        other print from the same source image.    -   “Imprint”: all the values of the characteristics measured,        allowing an identifier pattern to be represented and compared to        other identifier pattern representations.    -   “capture”: any process by which a digital representation of the        real world is obtained, including the digital representation of        a physical document containing an information matrix,    -   “cell”: this is a regular area, generally rectangular or even        square, of a VCDP in which there is, at most, a pre-defined        number of dots, the pre-defined number generally being equal to        one, other than in indicated variants;    -   “generation pixel”: the smallest area considered for generating        a VCDP,    -   “dot”: a printed elementary area of very small size, possibly        variable, making a contrast with a background, the dot generally        being the representation of one or more generation pixels,    -   “capture pixel” or “image pixel”: an area, the image of which        corresponds to a photosensitive elementary dot, or pixel, of an        image sensor,    -   “order of magnitude”: a physical magnitude A is of the same        order of magnitude as a physical magnitude B if the value of A        is between one tenth and ten times the value of B.

In the embodiments of this invention described below with regard toFIGS. 24 to 29, the following are utilized:

-   -   steps 701 to 703, digitally designing identifier patterns,    -   steps 711 to 715, calculating the identifier pattern's imprint        (according to one of the methods described elsewhere),    -   steps 720 to 726, optimizing the printing of identifier        patterns,    -   steps 731 to 734, storing and representing the imprints or        unique characteristics of documents,    -   steps 741 to 749, identifying the imprint by utilizing a        database,    -   steps 751 to 756, checking the imprint without a database,    -   steps 761 to 763, the combined use of an identifier pattern and        a digital authentication code, and    -   steps 771 to 780, securing a document.

With respect to digitally designing an identifier pattern anddetermining an identifier pattern's print parameters, at the origin ofcertain particular characteristics of this invention, it has beendiscovered that, if you print a single source image of a securedinformation matrix several times, this will be affected with differenterrors on each print. The same effect has also been noted for copydetection patterns. More generally, it has been noted that, for anyimage having a sufficient density, 1) printing the image will result inits degradation, and 2) and this will be affected by a differentdegradation with each print.

To be more precise, this phenomenon is not limited to digitalauthentication codes. In effect, whatever the density of a digitalimage, each of its prints will differ from all the other prints, giventhe random processes utilized in printing. Solely, for low-densityimages, the differences will be much less numerous and significant.Therefore a much higher capture resolution is needed in order to capturethe differences, which are sometimes minimal. In contrast, for digitalauthentication codes printed with adequate resolution, you do not needto use a particularly high capture resolution (a 1200 dots per inchscanner is shown to be sufficient). In addition, as the differences arevery significant, the extraction of the unique characteristics does nothave to be done with very great precision, which is advantageous interms of the cost and stability of the reading algorithms.

The identifier patterns are images designed and printed so as tomaximize the differences between each print of a single sourceidentifier pattern. For preference these images are designed in apseudo-random way (for example with one or more cryptographic keys), butthey can be completely random (the difference being that, in the secondcase, there is no cryptographic key or the key is not kept). However, itis noted that the original digital identifier pattern can be knownwithout compromising security, in theory: in effect, only the identifierpatterns recorded (with their imprint) in the database are legitimate,and in theory it is not possible to control the unanticipated unknownsin printing. Therefore, possession of the original image is does notgive the counterfeiter any real benefit, which is another advantage, interms of security, of identifier patterns.

Since the degradations are random in nature and produce a differentresult for each print of a single source image, each print of anidentifier pattern has unique characteristics that cannot be reproducedor transferred. Thus, each of the prints of a single identifier patternis different from all the others, and therefore per se has the means foridentifying it unequivocally. An identifier pattern's imprint cantherefore be calculated and used in different ways in order to increasethe security of the document that contains it, especially inidentification and check modes.

The identifier patterns can be simple rectangles, possibly enclosed by aborder making their detection easier, but can also have a special shape,such as a logo, etc. However, the rectangular shape is shown to haveadvantages with regard to reading (it can be easily identified) and itscompatibility with the normal shapes of digital authentication codes orother codes such as one- or two-dimensional bar codes.

An algorithm for designing an identifier pattern is described below:

-   -   during a step 701, a cryptographic key is received, for example        a 32-byte (256 bits) sequence,    -   during a step 702, by using a recursive encryption or hashing        function, the algorithm being initialized with the cryptographic        key, the required number of random bits are generated. For        example, for a 10,000-pixel black-and-white identifier pattern        (1 bit per pixel), 10,000 bits are needed; 8 times more are        needed for a grey-scale identifier pattern (each scale being        equiprobable). Assuming that the SHA-1 hashing function is used        (256-bit input and output), the function must be called 40 times        (one bit per pixel) or slightly less than 320 times (eight bits        per pixel) in order to obtain the necessary bits (since        40×256>=10,000 or 320×256>=80,000). The reader may draw on the        FIPS (acronym for “Federal Information Processing Standard”) and        AES (acronym for “Advanced Encryption Standard”) standards and    -   during a step 703, the bits are assembled into an image, for        example of 100×100 points, possibly completed by a border.

FIG. 24 shows such an identifier pattern, before printing. FIGS. 25 and26 show two different prints of the identifier pattern shown in 24.

The functions of a digital authentication code can be combined withthose of an identifier pattern, since the design and printcharacteristics of digital authentication codes are close to thoserequired for the identifier patterns. For example, the design algorithmsof the copy detection patterns, which require a cryptographic key, aresimilar to the algorithm described previously, even though the resultsought is very different. As for the design algorithms of the securedinformation matrices, they require both one or more cryptographic keysand one or more messages. The result, however, is similar, i.e. an imagewith pseudo-random values.

As will be seen below, it turns out that the ideal print conditions foridentifier patterns are close to the ideal print conditions for digitalauthentication codes. Thus it is possible, with respect to both thedesign and the printed result, to combine the functions of the digitalauthentication codes and those of the identifier patterns.

With regard to the methods of extracting and, when checking a document,of comparing the imprint of an identifier pattern, first of all ageneric extraction and comparison method is described below, whichconsists of extracting the values of a set of dots of a capturedidentifier pattern:

-   -   during a step 711, the position of the identifier pattern in the        image of the printed document is determined. For a        rectangular-shaped identifier pattern, for example, the        positions (height, width) of the four edges of the identifier        pattern can be extracted.    -   during a step 712, for a given number of dots to be extracted,        the position in the image is determined and the value of each of        these dots is extracted. For example, 256 dots horizontally and        256 vertically, for a total of 256², a number of dots        corresponding to 2 raised to a whole power is advantageous if,        for example, a FFT (fast Fourier transform) or a DCT (discrete        cosine transform) is used later. The position of the dots can be        determined by using standard geometric techniques, known from        the prior art: determining the position of reference dots (for        example, the four edges of the identifier pattern if this is        rectangular), then determining the position of the dots by        assuming that the captured image has undergone an affine or        perspective transform, for example. The values are typically,        for example, on a scale of 0 to 255, as well as the captured        image. As the positions can be fractional, the value of the dot        taken can be that “of the nearest neighbor”, a method that is        not very costly but not very precise. Interpolation algorithms,        with a cost that increases with the required precision, can also        be used: bicubic, bilinear, etc, interpolation. The result is a        256×256 matrix of integer (nearest neighbor) or floating-point        (interpolation) values.    -   during a step 713, the discrete cosine transform in two        dimensions of the matrix is calculated. The discrete cosine        transform is advantageous since it makes it possible to        significantly compress the signal energy over a small number of        components.    -   during a step 714, a given number of coefficients are selected,        for example the 10×10 lowest frequency coefficients, and        possibly eliminate the constant coefficient, known under the        name “DC” coefficient at position (0,0)    -   during a step 715, the coefficients are re-sequenced into a        vector, which constitutes the imprint of the secured information        matrix.

It is noted that the method described above does not utilize any secretand, consequently, allows anyone whosoever to calculate the imprint.This can be desirable in certain cases, where it is not considered topose a security risk. In contrast, in other cases it is desirable foronly authorized people to be able to calculate the imprint. To do this,you use a cryptographic key that is kept secret and which makes itpossible to determine the coefficients constituting the imprint. Thiskey is only divulged to people or entities authorized to reconstitutethe imprint. Techniques from the prior state of the art are available topeople in this field for selecting the coefficients from the key,generally utilizing a hashing algorithm or an encryption algorithm.

Two imprints corresponding to separate captures can then be compared inmultiple ways so as to obtain a measurement of similarity or,conversely, a measurement of distance. By measuring, for example, acoefficient of correlation between them, a measurement of similarity isobtained, which will be referred to as the “score” subsequently.

To validate this method of extracting unique characteristics, anidentifier pattern of 100×100 pixels was generated that was printed 100times on a 600 dots per inch laser printer. A 1200 dots per inch“flatbed” scanner was used to carry out three captures of each printedidentifier pattern. An imprint was then calculated for each of the 300captures done. A score is then measured for each of the 44,850 pairs ofimprints (number calculated as follows: 300*(300−1)/2). These 44,850imprint pairs are separated into two groups:

-   -   one group A of 600 pairs of imprints corresponding to different        captures of the same printed identifier pattern and    -   one group B of 44,250 pairs of imprints corresponding to        captures of different printed identifier patterns.

The score is between 0.975 and 0.998 for group A, and between 0.693 and0.945 for group B. FIG. 29 shows the distribution of the scores forgroup A and group B. On the basis of these scores, no confusion betweenthe pairs of the two groups is possible. Thus, by using the imprintcalculation method described above, you can determine without ambiguitywhich of the 100 prints is the source of the captured image.

An “imprint separation degree” is measured, which consists ofcalculating the difference of the averages of the scores for groups Aand B (here 0.992 and 0.863 respectively) and normalizing it by thestandard deviation of the scores of group A, here 0.005. A value of 25.8is obtained. As will be seen later, this index is useful for determiningthe print and design parameters giving the best results.

A second method of extracting imprints concerning the securedinformation matrices is described below. This method applies inparticular when the identifier pattern also has the functions of asecured information matrix. It explains how a captured securedinformation matrix's scrambled message is extracted. This scrambledmessage has a non-zero error rate and the structure of the errors isused as an imprint.

An advantage of this method is that it makes it possible to use softwaredesigned to read secured information matrices. This minimizes the costof the calculations required.

However, the precise reading of a secured information matrix requires akey serving to generate the blocks to align, if necessary. You do notnecessarily want to divulge this key in all cases. In addition, theinternal alignment variations specific to each print are as far aspossible eliminated. This is not necessarily desirable, since thesevariations play a part in differentiating the different prints of asecured information matrix.

With respect to the method of determining optimal parameters forgenerating and printing identifier patterns, an optimal level ofdegradation exists that enables the various prints of a single sourceidentifier pattern to be separated as easily as possible. Thus, if thelevel of degradation on printing is very low, for example 1% or 2% (1 or2% of the identifier pattern's cells or pixels are misread from aperfect capture), the various prints of a single identifier pattern arevery close to each other and it is difficult to identify them reliably,unless you have a very precise capture and/or a very precise analysisalgorithm. Similarly, when the level of degradation is very high, forexample 45% or 50% (45 or 50% of the identifier pattern's cells orpixels are misread from a perfect capture, 50% signifying that there isno statistical correlation between the matrix read and the sourcematrix), the printed identifier patterns are almost indistinct from eachother. In reality, the optimal level of degradation is close to 25%, andif the application conditions allow it, it is preferable to be close tothis level. In effect, for 25% degradation, assuming that the printvariations and therefore the degradations are by nature probabilistic,for each of the dots of the printed identifier pattern, the probabilitythat it differs from the other printed identifier patterns is maximized.

A possible algorithm for optimizing print parameters is described below:

-   -   during a step 720, the surface area available for the identifier        pattern is received, for example a square measuring ⅙ inch,    -   during a step 721, several digital images of identifier patterns        are generated with different digital sizes, corresponding to        various possible print resolutions, for example one identifier        pattern of 66×66 pixels at 400 dots per inch, one of 100×100        pixels at 600 dots per inch, one of 133×133 pixels at 800 dots        per inch, one of 200×200 pixels at 1200 dots per inch,    -   during a step 722, each one of the identifier patterns with        different digital sizes is printed several times, for example        100 times, with suitable resolution so that the dimensions of        the print correspond to the surface area available.    -   during a step 723, for each type, each one of the printed        identifier patterns is captured several times, for example 3        times,    -   during a step 724, each identifier pattern's imprint is        calculated,    -   during a step 725, the similarity scores are calculated for all        the pairs of captured identifier patterns with the same print        resolution and    -   during a step 726, the method described in the test of the        generic imprint extraction method mentioned above is followed to        measure the “imprint separation degree”, for each of the print        resolutions, and the print resolution giving the maximum value        for this degree is selected.

In a variant, several secured information matrices are printed withdifferent print resolutions, and the print resolution resulting in a 25%error rate, as calculated with one of the algorithms describedelsewhere, is determined.

In a variant, the print resolution is selected for which the differencebetween the lowest value for the score calculated on comparing imprintscorresponding the identical prints, and the highest value for the scorecalculated on comparing imprints corresponding to different prints, isthe greatest.

With respect to the method of representing and storing characteristics,it is advantageous to reduce the imprint data volume as far as possible.In the case of identification, this involves comparing an imprint to avery large number of imprints stored in a database, which is verycostly. This cost is reduced by reducing the size of the imprints to becompared, especially by avoiding using floating-point numbers.

Consider the case of the generic imprint extraction method. The initialdata vector extracted from a captured identifier pattern is the 256×256matrix of extracted values, and its representation by a discrete cosinetransform, after selecting coefficients, has 10×10 values. It isadvantageous to represent the matrix of values with one byte per value,i.e. 100 bytes.

During a step 727, at least one object is printed with an identifierpattern to produce a secured document.

On the other hand, the coefficients of the discrete cosine transform canbe either positive or negative, and in theory are not limited. In orderto represent such values with a fixed amount of information, the valuesmust be quantified so as to be represented in binary values. A possibleapproach is as follows:

-   -   during a step 731, a minimum value and a maximum value are        determined, in advance, for each coefficient. In general, the        minimum and maximum values have the same absolute value.    -   during a step 732, the number of bits or bytes allowing each        value to be represented is determined and    -   during a normalization step 733, for each coefficient of the        discrete cosine transform, the minimum value is subtracted and        then the remainder is divided by the maximum value,    -   during a step 734, the result is multiplied by the number of        possible values of the quantified data, i.e. 256 if one byte is        available for each value. The integer value of the result is        compared to the original quantified value.

In a variant, the quantification steps are optimized so as to minimizethe quantification error.

With respect to the method of identification with database, in the caseof identification, an identifier pattern must be compared with each of adatabase's identifier patterns, in order to determine whether itcorresponds to one of the database's identifier patterns, in which casethe identifier pattern is considered to be valid, and the associatedtraceability information can be retrieved. If not, the identifierpattern is considered not valid.

In embodiments, the following steps are utilized:

-   -   during a step 741, the imprint of the identifier pattern        contained in the captured image is determined,    -   during a step 742, the obtained imprint's score, or similarity,        is calculated with each of the imprints stored in the database,    -   during a step 743, the maximum similarity obtained is        determined,    -   during a step 744, if the maximum similarity is above a        threshold value, the identifier pattern is deemed valid and,        during a step 745, the associated traceability information is        retrieved,    -   if not, during a step 746, the identifier pattern is deemed not        valid.

In variants:

-   -   during a step 747, if the identifier pattern also has the        functions of a digital authentication code, the traceability        information is extracted.    -   during a step 748, the traceability information allowing the        search space to be reduced can also come from another source,        for example an associated bar code, information from the        controller, etc and    -   during a step 749, this information is used to reduce the search        space in the database. For example, the manufacturing order        information makes it possible to pre-select imprints to be        compared from the sub-set of imprints corresponding to this        manufacturing order.

With respect to the method of checking without database, this requiresthe pre-calculated imprint of the identifier pattern to be stored on thedocument. For example, during the step calculating the imprint of eachof the legitimate documents, these can be destined both to be stored ina database and to be stored in a secured way on the document.

The storage of the imprint on the document is for preference done byvariable printing, i.e. different for each document, on the fly. Theimprint can be stored in a one- or two-dimensional bar code, or in adigital authentication code, depending on the print means, the qualityof which can be limited.

It is generally preferable to store the imprint in a secured way, forexample by using a cryptographic algorithm equipped with a secretencryption key. In this way you avoid the risk of a counterfeiter usingnon-legitimate documents without having to be connected to a referencedatabase. The following steps are utilized for this:

-   -   during a step 751, the imprint of the identifier pattern        contained in the captured image is determined,    -   during a step 752, the pre-calculated imprint is received,    -   during a step 753, a score, or a similarity, is calculated by        comparing the imprint obtained with the pre-calculated imprint,    -   during a step 754, if the maximum similarity is above a        threshold value, the identifier pattern is deemed valid,    -   if not, during a step 756, the identifier pattern is deemed        invalid.

With respect to a combined use of an identifier pattern with thefunctions of a digital authentication code, the prior state of the artmethods of uniquely characterizing documents use characteristics thatcannot be interpreted without making use of a database. On the otherhand, while the identifier patterns can simply be images with nosignificance, as has been seen, they can also be images comprising otherfunctions. In particular they can be digital authentication codes, inwhich case they can comprise secured information (one or more keys arerequired to read them), and/or have authentication properties (todistinguish an original from a copy).

The identifier pattern's imprint can be designed to be sufficientlyprecise to identify the document, but not sufficiently to not bereproducible. In effect, consider the generic method of determining theimprint, based on 100 low-frequency DCT coefficients, possiblyrepresented with one byte each. Any person whatsoever can, in theory,extract these coefficients, and create an image of the same dimension asan identifier pattern by inversing these coefficients. As is understood,this image is very different from printed identifier patterns.Nevertheless, the score obtained by comparing the imprint calculatedfrom an inversed image capture and the original imprint is 0.952. Thisscore, while less than all the scores obtained from comparing imprintsof the same printed identifier patterns, is noticeably greater than thescores obtained from comparing imprints of different printed identifierpatterns. There is therefore a risk that a counterfeiter seeks toreproduce the imprint of a legitimate identifier pattern.

A better image capture and/or a finer image capture would make itpossible to reduce, even eliminate, the risk of such a falsificationworking. However, this is not always possible. In that case, if theidentifier pattern is also a digital authentication code, it isadvantageous to use its authentication properties at the same time byutilizing the following steps:

-   -   during a step 761, the identifier pattern is identified or        checked,    -   during a step 762, the key or keys required to authenticate the        digital authentication code is received and    -   during a step 763, it is determined whether the digital        authentication code is an original or a copy.

The digital authentication codes are usually based on the degradation ofone or more physical anti-copy characteristics, which are sensitive tocopying during the copy step.

Thus, the digital watermarks have a lower energy level in the copy, oreven a different energy level ratio between a watermark not verysensitive to copying and a watermark especially sensitive to copying.Similarly in the case of spatial marking techniques, a lower level ofenergy, or correlation, is noted for the copies. For the copy detectionpatterns, based on an image comparison, an index of similarity (ordissimilarity) between the original copy detection pattern and thecaptured copy detection pattern is calculated; if the latter is a copy,the similarity index will be lower. Finally, for secured informationmatrices, an error rate is measured for the coded message extracted fromthe matrix; this error rate will be higher for copies (note that, thanksto the coded message's redundancies, the message sent is generallydecodable without error).

It is noted that, for each of these methods, one or more values aremeasured that are generally continuous, and which do not explicitlyspecify the nature of the document (original or copy). A pre-definedcriterion for distinguishing originals from copies must generally beapplied, for example by comparing the obtained value or values againstone or more “threshold” values, so as to determine whether the measuredvalue or values correspond to a “copy” or an “original”.

With respect to the embodiments of the process for securing documentsbased on the identifier patterns, the following steps can be utilized:

-   -   during a step 771, the owner of the rights grants a processor a        license to produce a certain number of documents,    -   during a step 772, the owner of the rights sends the processor        one or more identifier pattern(s), possibly having a digital        authentication code function, in the form of a digital image to        be printed on the documents. The identifier pattern can be part        of a digital document's design, or be sent separately. In a        variant, the processor receives the identifier pattern from a        third party authorized by the rights holder,    -   during the step 773, the processor prints the specified number        of documents, with the specified identifier pattern or patterns        on each document,    -   during a step 774, the specified number of printed documents is        sent to the rights holder. In a variant, the documents are sent        to the assembler authorized by the owner of the rights. In a        variant, the specified number of printed documents is directly        processed by the processor during the step 774, as described in        variants.    -   during a step 775, the owner of the rights/the assembler        assembles the finished product (which can contain several        documents),    -   during a step 776, one or more images of the identifier pattern        or patterns is or are captured. In theory, this process is        performed automatically, for example, the products moving on a        conveyor belt under the lens of an industrial camera. The        industrial camera is triggered automatically or via external        activation coming from a sensor,    -   during a step 777, each captured image of an identifier pattern        is stored in a database, with the associated information        (manufacturing order, date, etc.),    -   during a step 778, in real time or deferred, one or more        imprints are calculated for each valid captured identifier        pattern image,    -   during a step 779, with the possible aim of using the identifier        pattern in check mode (without database connection), one of the        imprints, generally the one that occupies the smallest data        volume, is quantified and/or compressed so as to obtain a        compact representation of it. An information matrix (a        datamatrix, a bar code, a secured information matrix SIM, etc.),        for preference made secure with the help of a key, is generated        containing the representation of the imprint. The information        matrix is printed on the document containing the identifier        pattern and    -   during a step 780, if necessary, the set of calculated imprints        is sent, by secure link, to the central server on which the        inspectors are connected in order to check the validity of the        imprints.

In variants:

-   -   the site where the images of identifier patterns are captured        can be located at the printer or the processor, with the        advantage that it can be integrated into the production, and the        disadvantage that it is in an exposed area. The machine used for        calculating and/or storing imprints can be made secure and/or    -   the site can be located at the third-party authorized by the        owner of the rights, generally the same as the supplier of the        identifier patterns used.

FIG. 23 shows:

-   -   a step 605 of determining a matrix of dots representing an item        of information associated to an object to be authenticated,    -   a step 610 of affixing a mark to said object in such a way that        the affixed mark presents unpredictable errors due to the        physical characteristics of the means utilized during the        marking step,    -   a step 615 of capturing an image of said mark,    -   a step 620 of determining physical characteristics of said        unpredictable errors by processing said image,    -   a step 625 of memorizing an item of information representing the        physical characteristics of the unpredictable errors and    -   a robust marking step 630 during which a robust mark bearing        information relating to the physical characteristics of the        unpredictable errors is affixed to said object.

During the step 605, the information matrix is determined, for examplein the form of a matrix of areas, each bearing hundreds of dots and eachrepresenting an item of binary information. The item of informationassociated to the product is, for example, the name of its manufacturer,the product's manufacturing order and/or date of manufacture.

During the step 610 you affix the mark formed of a matrix of dots with aresolution such that at least two per cent of the mark's dots areerroneous compared to the original dot matrix. For example, a printer'smaximum resolution is used. The effect of this resolution is such that,in particular, copying the object, which entails copying the mark, forexample by optical or photographic processes, increases by at leastfifty per cent the level of errors in the copied mark compared to theoriginal mark.

During the step 620 you determine, as physical characteristics of theunpredictable errors, the characteristics of the distribution of saiderrors in said mark. For example, you determine the vector going fromthe center of the mark to the barycenter of the errors borne by themark, and then you assign a weight to the errors depending on theirposition and you determine a new vector going from the center of themark to the barycenter of the errors and so on.

During the step 630, the robust mark is, for example, a one- ortwo-dimensional bar code or a data matrix, known under the namedatamatrix (registered trademark). Because this second mark is robust,it can resist slavish copying and enable the object to be identified.For preference, during the step 630, you utilize a code key, forpreference a public code key, of the physical characteristics of theunpredictable errors.

Thanks to the utilization of the present invention, even though the samemarking process is utilized, without modification, for example byetching or printing, on many objects, the physical characteristics ofthe marking errors make it possible to give each mark, and thus eachassociated object, a unique identification.

When a new image capture is carried out with a marked object and newimage processing is applied, the result of this image processing can becompared to the memorized information to retrieve the object'sidentification.

The error quantity is significant and allows the mark and the object tobe uniquely identified.

The reading of the data relating to the object that bears the markprovides an origin and/or means of access to a database of physicalcharacteristics of the errors.

Whatever the conditions in which a new image of said mark is captured,the error distribution characteristics can be retrieved.

For the utilization of certain embodiments of the present invention, theinventor has discovered that certain print characteristics can allow theoriginals to be distinguished from copies very effectively. Inparticular, the variation in the dimensions, or “size”, in the preciseposition or shape of the marked dots can be measured and integrated in ametric allowing the originals to be distinguished from copies. It isnoted that the variation in the color level (or grey scale) in the imageto be printed amounts, because of the screening, to a variation in shapeor dimensions. The digital authentication codes mentioned previously arenot designed to measure these characteristics precisely. On thecontrary, all digital authentication codes of known types haveperformances deteriorated by the variations in position due tounanticipated unknowns in printing, variations that are disruptive forthe measurements used. At best, methods are used to seek to eliminatethem. Moreover, the digital watermarks and AMSMs are designed to make itpossible to measure the overall characteristics of the signal (energy,for example), which are not very precise for differentiating between theoriginals and the copies.

FIG. 1 shows a digital mark 105 comprised of a set of dots 110 withrandom positions surrounded by a black border 115. It is noted that thedots 110 in this original mark are all of the same size, namely 1 pixelfor an image printed at 600 pixels/inch. FIG. 2 shows a print 120 ofthis digital mark. FIG. 3 shows a photocopy 125 of this mark. It isnoticed that, in the photocopy 125, the dots 110 have disappeared. Witha simple measurement, such as the number of dots still present in themark, an image of which is captured by an electronic image sensor, or adegree of correlation with the reference mark, it is easy to distinguishan original 120 from a photocopy 125, or a low-quality copy.

FIG. 4 shows a high-quality copy 130. This copy has been made based on ahigh-quality capture of an image with a scanner, a capture commonlycalled a “scan”, by restoring to their original state the dots 110detected automatically (for example, by using the Matlab softwaresystem, registered trademark), given that these latter are black and1/600^(th) of an inch in size. It is seen that all, otherwise most, ofthe dots 110 present in the original in FIG. 2 are present in FIG. 4.Any counterfeiter's task is, unfortunately, made easier by the factthat, all the dots originally having the same size, the measurement ofthe size or grey-scale of the dots does not have to be known and thedots can simply be reconstituted in their original size (which, beingfixed, is easy to determine over a large set).

For preference, by utilizing certain aspects of the present invention,simply counting the dots present is not enough to distinguish theoriginal from the copy. A method based on the correlation or the levelof energy, as used by the AMSMs, is also ineffective for detectinggood-quality copies.

For this purpose, in preferred embodiments, in order to widen theopportunities for using dot patterns, determining a document'sauthenticity entails paying special attention to the geometriccharacteristics of the dots, which are studied at the local level,unlike prior state of the art methods. In particular, the exactposition, shape and/or size of the dots are used for detecting copies,storing information and/or for uniquely characterizing documents. TheVCDPs that are the subject of particular embodiments of the presentinvention thus present the particularity that the exact position, shapeand/or size of the dots are variable. For preference, for generating thedot distribution in this VCDP, dots are produced of which at least onegeometric characteristic is variable, the geometric amplitude of thegenerated variation being of the order of magnitude of the averagedimension of at least one part of the dots.

The description that will follow concerns:

-   -   VCDP digital design methods,    -   methods of measuring VCDP geometric characteristics,    -   methods of combining the measured geometric characteristics of        the VCDPs in a metric allowing original VCDPs to be        distinguished from copied VCDPs,    -   methods of optimizing the printing of VCDPs,    -   methods of identifying VCDPs on the basis of their geometric        characteristics,    -   methods of checking VCDPs,    -   methods of storing information in the VCDPs and    -   a process for securing documents.

First of all, a method of generating a variable characteristic dotpattern is described below. In order to generate a VCDP, you determine,beforehand, the print quality of the print system that will be used forprinting the VCDP on the document, during a step 300. The print qualityrepresents an unpredictable variation of at least one geometriccharacteristic of the printed dots, dot by dot, caused by the printing,as a result of unanticipated unknowns in printing.

Then you determine the surface area available for printing this VCDP,the resolution of the print system and the maximum density of the dotswanted, during a step 302. For example, the available size can be about⅙×⅙ inch, and the density 1/100 (about one out of 100 pixels can beprinted). The maximum density depends on the accepted degree ofvisibility for the VCDP, which is a function of the applicationconditions (color of the ink, medium, type of printing, appearance ofthe document, for example). The density can be greater, for example adensity of 1/16 or 1/9 is possible, even ¼. For preference the VCDP isgenerated so that the dots printed do not “touch”.

In certain cases, the size available can be much larger, for exampleseveral square inches. However, most of the means of capture, forexample cameras comprising an array image sensor, offer a capturesurface area that does not allow this area to be covered (flat-bedscanners are not generally available when documents or products must beread “in the field”). In this case, you can “tile” the VCDP, i.e.juxtapose the same VCDP, or juxtapose different VCDPs for securityreasons. In the rest of the description, these two types of VCDPjuxtaposition, respectively identical or different, are called “tiling”.

In assuming that the capture tool can be applied arbitrarily over theprint area, the maximum size of the VCDP in order to ensure that atleast one VCDP will be fully contained in the capture surface area isequal to half of the smallest side of the capture surface area. For theexample mentioned earlier of a 640×480 CCD operating at 1220 dots/inch(surface area of 1.33 cm by 1 cm), the VCDP should not exceed 0.5centimeters a side.

The VCDP is subsequently generated in such a way that:

-   -   at least half the dots of said distribution are not laterally        juxtaposed to four other dots of said dot distribution, and    -   at least one dimension of at least one part of the dots of said        distribution of dots is of the same order of magnitude as the        average for the absolute value of said unpredictable variation.

The inventors have, in effect, discovered that the print of the originalmust present such a ratio of orders of magnitude in order to obtain moreeffective securitization functions (authentication and identification)of the document.

In addition, the inventors have discovered that, in certain embodiments,in order to make a document secure against copies causing, as a resultof unanticipated unknowns in copying, a so-called unpredictable “copy”variation, dot by dot, of said geometric characteristic of the printeddots, it is preferable that when printing a distribution of dots on thedocument, said printing causes, as a result of unanticipated unknowns inprinting, a so-called unpredictable “print” variation, dot by dot, ofsaid geometric characteristic of the printed dots, the average magnitudeof the unpredictable print variation being of the same order ofmagnitude as the average minimum magnitude of the unpredictablevariation of said copies. For preference, you then perform a step ofdetermining a physical magnitude representing the unpredictable printvariation, as described elsewhere with reference to the functions ofauthenticating and identifying a document.

For example, you can use a VCDP of 200×200 pixels printed at 1200 dotsper inch, for a printed surface area of ⅙ inch, the “dots” of whichmeasure 2×2 generation pixels when the average of the absolute value ofthe unpredictable variation is between 0.2 pixels and 20 pixels. Notethat a VCDP of 100×100 pixels printed at 600 dots per inch, with dots of1×1 pixel, may give a comparable result. Nevertheless, a higher imageresolution (for the same size of printed area) allows more flexibilityin varying the size and/or the position of the dots, as detailed below.

For preference, dots that are superposed, stuck together, or too close,are avoided. For this purpose, the VCDP is divided into adjacent areas,for example into 10×10 areas of 20×20 pixels each, for a VCDP of 200×200pixels. By leaving a white border of 1 pixel on each of the edges ofeach area, an area of 18×18 pixels is available for the dot. There aretherefore 17×17=289 possible positions for each dot in the area that isreserved for it (the dots taking 2×2 pixels, their highest and left-mostpoints, for example, can only take 17 lateral positions and 17longitudinal positions).

For security reasons, it is desirable that the VCDP is of apseudo-random nature, for example generated from a cryptographicalgorithm to which a key is supplied that is kept secret. This key isused as the initialization value of an algorithm generatingpseudo-random numbers, which can be retrieved by anyone whatsoever whoknows the key, but which are very difficult to find for anyone who doesnot have the key.

As FIG. 16A shows, in order to generate a VCDP you carry out:

-   -   a step 302 of receiving or determining the surface area        available, and of the resolution of the print system and the        print density,    -   a step 304 of receiving a cryptographic key, for example a        32-byte (256 bits) sequence,    -   a step 306 of generating binary values, for example by using a        recursive encryption or hashing function, the algorithm being        initialized with the cryptographic key. For example, for the        example mentioned above, there are 289 possible positions for        the dot, and therefore 9 bits are required to determine the        position of a dot in the area reserved for it. Thus, 900 bits        are required to determine the positions of 100 dots in their        respective areas. Assuming that the SHA-1 hashing function is        used, with 256-bit input and output, the function must be called        four times in order to obtain the necessary binary data and    -   a step 308 of incorporating a dot in each cell and assembling        cells into an image, in this case 200×200 pixels in size. For        example, during this step 308, successive nine-bit sequences are        used, in order to determine the position of a dot in each cell.        When the value represented by this sequence is greater than 289,        the next sequence is taken. If not, the dot is positioned at the        position identified by the sequence, for example by numbering        the successive positions in each line of possible positions.        Then the cells are juxtaposed, for example successively in each        line of cells.

Following the step 308, the VCDPs are incorporated in the print filmsand the document is printed, during a step 310.

In variants, each dot can have a variable size. For example, the dotscan have a surface area greater or less than 2×2 pixels. Thus, the dotscan have several sizes offering the possibility of measuring othergeometric characteristics that are difficult for the counterfeiter toreproduce. For example, the dots can have two possible sizes, either 2×2pixels as given previously, or 3×3 pixels, unequal vertical andhorizontal dimensions, for example 2×3 or 3×2, also being possible. Notethat, in the case of two square dots, an additional item of binary datais needed to identify the size of the dot, an item of data that is addedto the nine items of binary data that identify the position of the dotin the area reserved for it. Thus, ten items of binary data are neededper area, and 1000 items of binary data for the 100 cells.

FIG. 5 shows a VCDP 135 with dots whose dimensions vary pseudo-randomly(dots of 2×2 and 3×3 pixels) and a border 140 surrounding the VCDP 135.FIG. 6 shows a detail of the result 145 of printing the VCDP 135 of FIG.5.

It is noted that, in variants, a border, in this case 140, or arbitraryshapes are added allowing the VCDP to be localized. For example,synchronization blocks are added on the borders or in the VCDP, in theplace of areas containing dots.

With respect to the measurements of a VCDP's position characteristics,the inventor has discovered that, while the dots comprising a VCDP canbe determined and reconstituted with quasi-certainty by a counterfeiter,it is very difficult for the latter to be able to reduce the uncertaintyconcerning the precise position of the dots. In effect, when a VCDP isprinted, the dots are not necessarily printed in their exact position:this uncertainty is due to unanticipated unknowns in printing, and it isalso caused by passing from digital to analog. In effect, by passingfrom digital values to analog values during printing, then again todigital values when the image is captured, there is an averageuncertainty of around a half-pixel, (print and image capture pixelsrespectively) in the position of the dots, the second uncertainty beingindependent of the position uncertainties due to the unanticipatedunknowns in printing. Note that, according to the stability of the printmeans, additional position uncertainties can be added. When ahigh-quality copy is produced, additional re-print positionuncertainties are added to the position uncertainties already present.Thus, the variance between a dot's position in the captured image andthis dot's position in the original image is, on average, greater if thecaptured image is a copy than if it is an original.

An algorithm for measuring a VCDP's geometric position characteristicsis described below. An image captured, during a step 320, from adocument area containing a VCDP and a cryptographic key are used oninput. On output from the steps implementing this algorithm, a vector ofthe position characteristics of the VCDP's dots is obtained.

-   -   by applying the VCDP design algorithm, the original positions of        each of the dots is determined, during a step 322;    -   during a step 324, the position of a set of position reference        shapes in the captured image is determined, it being understood        that the VCDP itself, or a part of it, can serve as a reference        shape, since it is known. For example, these reference cells can        be indicators of corners, the border of a square. Other known        techniques for determining position can also be used, such as        autocorrelating tiled images.    -   from the reference shapes, an image is reconstructed that is the        same size or a whole multiple of the original size, during a        step 326;    -   for each cell, during a step 328, you determine a search area in        the captured image in which the image of the dot must be located        (For example, if the VCDP is printed at 600 ppi (acronym for        “points per inch”) and is captured at 1200 dpi (acronym for        “dots per inch”, signifying capture pixels per inch), an area of        +/−5 pixels corresponds to an area of +/−2.5 pixels in the        original image). A relatively large search area is necessary        since the initial position of the reference cells can be        imprecise;    -   if the dot is a dark color on a light background, during a step        330 the position in the reconstructed image, or in the captured        image, of the pixel having the minimum luminance value in the        defined area is determined, and if the dot is a light color on a        dark background, during step 330, the position in the        reconstructed image, or in the captured image, of the pixel        having the maximum luminance value in the defined area is        determined. This position of a pixel is considered to be the        position of the center of the dot in the captured image;    -   the distances, in each direction, between the two positions are        measured, during a step 332 and    -   all of the distance measurements are compiled into a vector of        geometric characteristics, during a step 334.

In this way, for a VCDP of 100 cells a vector of size 100×2 is obtained.Because of imprecisions in the position of the reference cells, asystematic bias can exist. For preference, during the step 332, thisbias is compensated for by calculating the averages of the horizontaland vertical distances and subtracting this average from thecorresponding distances (in effect, a zero average is expected for theimprecisions in position).

In variants:

-   -   other characteristic values of each point are used to determine        its position, For example, the luminance value of the dot's        central pixel, the response value to a filter of dots        corresponding to pixels, etc and/or    -   the positions of dots are determined without reconstructing the        image, taking into account the scale factor in the captured        image, as well as the latter's rotation and translation, in        determining search areas for the precise position of each dot.

With respect to distinguishing, or differentiating between originalVCDPs and copied VCDPs utilizing the vector of position characteristics,you can proceed as follows:

-   -   for each dot, you calculate the Euclidean distance between the        position of the dot calculated according to the captured image        and the original position, during a step 340,    -   during a step 342, you calculate the average, or median, of this        distance over all the dots, in order to obtain a measurement of        the average distance,    -   during a step 344, you compare this average distance to a        pre-defined threshold and,    -   during a step 346, you determine whether the VCDP is an original        or a copy, in the following way:        -   if the average distance is below the threshold, the VCDP is            considered to be original,        -   otherwise, it is considered to be a copy.

The following example illustrates the proposed method. The same originalVCDP has been printed and then captured three times. The averagedistances calculated over the vectors of position characteristics forthe originals are 0.454, 0.514 and 0.503 image pixels. Threehigh-quality copies have been made, each from one of the three printedVCDPs. The average distances calculated over the vectors of positioncharacteristics for these copies are 0.965, 1.088 and 0.929 imagepixels. It is noted that, based on the average distance, the originalVCDPs can easily be separated from the copied VCDPs simply bythresholding. Several threshold values are possible, depending on therelative cost of possible errors (“false positive”: detecting a copy asan original, or “false positive”: detecting an original as a copy). Athreshold of 0.75 (image) pixels can be an acceptable compromise if therelative costs of each type of error are equivalent.

Other known mathematical techniques, for example based on statisticaland/or shape recognition methods, can be used so as to distinguishoriginal VCDPs from copied VCDPs.

With respect to distinguishing, or differentiating between originalVCDPs and copied VCDPs using the values of the geometric characteristicsof the dots, as was noted above, if the dots are of a constant size itis easy for the counterfeiter to reproduce them with a size thatconforms, even if the dots can appear with a variable size in theoriginal mark. In an embodiment, during the generation of a VCDP, one ortwo dimensions of the dots are made to vary.

During the analysis of a document's authenticity, after having capturedan image of the VCDP, during a step 350, you determine the dimension ordimensions of the dots according to their central image pixel's degreeof luminance, their response to at least one matrix filter correspondingto image pixels, etc, during a step 352.

Then, the original VCDPs are distinguished from the copies according tothe degree of similarity between the dimensions of the original digitalVCDP's dots and the dimensions of the corresponding dots in the capturedimage of the VCDP to be authenticated. For example, you proceed asfollows:

-   -   during a step 354, by applying the VCDP design algorithm you        determine a vector of expected dimension characteristics. For        example, the vector of expected characteristics can be the value        of the surface area of the dots or their two dimensions,        horizontal and vertical;    -   during a step 356, you calculate an index of similarity, for        example a coefficient of correlation, between the vector of        expected characteristics and the vector of characteristics        obtained after processing the VCDP's captured image and    -   during a step 358, you determine whether the VCDP is authentic,        by comparing the index of similarity with a pre-defined        threshold value:        -   if the value of the index is greater than the threshold, the            VCDP is considered to be original and        -   if not it is considered to be a copy.

The following example illustrates the proposed method. The same originalVCDP, illustrated in FIG. 5, in which the dimensions of the dots varybetween 2×2 and 3×3 pixels, has been printed and then captured threetimes. The vector of characteristics comprises surface area values of 4and 9 pixels for dot sizes of 2×2 and 3×3 pixels. The vectors ofcharacteristics contain the average luminance value of a regionsurrounding the dot, less the luminance value of the dot. Thereforethere is a higher value if the dot is printed more heavily, which isgenerally the case for the dots of 3×3 pixels.

The indices of similarity calculated are, for the three original prints,0.654, 0.673 and 0.701. Then three high-quality copies have been made,each from one of the three printed VCDPs. To make the copies, thepositions of the dots were determined, then their degree of luminancewas measured. The median degree of luminance of the VCDP's dots has beencalculated, and the dots having a luminance less than the median degreeof luminance have been considered to be originally of size 3×3 pixels,versus a size of 2×2 pixels for the dots having a degree of luminancegreater than the median degree of luminance. The copies have beenprinted and captured. The indices of similarity calculated are, for thethree copies, 0.451, 0.423 and 0.446. It is noted that, based on theaverage distance, the original VCDPs can easily be separated from thecopied VCDPs simply by thresholding. Several threshold values arepossible, depending on the relative cost of possible errors. A thresholdof 0.55 for the index of similarity can be an acceptable compromise ifthe relative costs of each type of error are equivalent.

Other known mathematical techniques, for example based on statisticaland/or shape recognition methods, can be used so as to distinguishoriginal VCDPs from copied VCDPs.

The description given above basically concerns making a document secureagainst copying. The rest of the description involves two other forms ofsecuring a document, firstly to uniquely identify documents that havenot been printed by a “variable” print process and secondly to carry anitem of information concerning the document, for example a referencenumber, its date of manufacture, its place of manufacture and itsmanufacturing order, the name of the owner of the intellectual propertyrights linked to the document or its destination.

Methods of identifying VCDPs on the basis of their geometriccharacteristics are described below. It entails, in this case, usingmeasured characteristics of the VCDPs to uniquely identify each of theprints from a single source digital VCDP image. In effect, each print ofa VCDP produces unique unanticipated unknowns in printing, which can befound in different captures of the same print. Thus, by storing thecharacteristics of a VCDP's successive prints in a database, or bystoring them, preferably in a secure way, on the document containing theVCDP (for example in a 2D bar code), a print of a VCDP, and thus aprinted document bearing it, can subsequently be identified, i.e.uniquely recognized, by searching for the correspondence between thegeometric characteristics of the VCDP whose image was captured and thestored geometric characteristics.

For preference, the identification and authentication are combined, thesame device for capturing and processing the image providing both anindication of the document's authenticity and of the document'sidentification.

Several geometric characteristics of the dots can be used, such as theprecise position, or the measurement of luminance, the dimension ordimensions of the dots and their shape. The degree of luminance,measured by the dot's average, central or minimum grey scale, isespecially discriminating since it varies significantly andunpredictably over different prints of the same source image. It isnoted that it is not necessary to use dots with variable sizes or shapesin the source VCDP for the characteristics of the dots to vary from oneprint to the next. In order to illustrate this, FIG. 7 shows two printsof a single VCDP having a constant dot size: a dot 151 is printed moreheavily in the lower image than in the upper image, while a dot 152 isprinted more heavily in the upper image than in the lower image.

By capturing each of the three printed VCDPs three times, a total ofnine captured images is obtained. The vector of characteristicscontaining the minimum luminance value of the dots is calculated foreach of the nine image captures. Then you calculate an index ofsimilarity, i.e. a coefficient of correlation, between the vectors ofcharacteristics of each of the 9*8/2=36 possible pairs of capturedimages. Out of these 36 pairs, 9 correspond to different captures of thesame print, and 25 to captures of different prints. The average for theindex of similarity is 0.9566 with a standard deviation of 0.0073 and aminimum value of 0.9474 for the first group, and 0.6203 with a standarddeviation of 0.0272 and a maximum value of 0.6679 for the second group.The difference in the index of similarity between the two groups is verysignificant, and shows that a printed VCDP can be identified withoutambiguity on the basis of a vector of characteristics of dots.

FIG. 18 details steps in an identification procedure corresponding tothis approach. During a step 402, an image of a printed VCDP iscaptured. Then, during a step 404, the vector of characteristicscontaining the average values of the minimum luminance of the dots iscalculated. This vector of characteristics, or “signature” of theprinted VCDP, contains, for each dot, the average luminance measurementand, possibly, the standard deviation between luminance measurements. Itis noted that certain measurements of luminance can be excluded based ontheir difference from the average of the other measurements and thestandard deviation between the other measurements. Then, during a step406, the vector of characteristics is stored, in a database, withindications concerning the document's production and/or circulation.

During an identification attempt, during a step 410, an image of aprinted VCDP is captured. Then, during a step 412, the vector ofcharacteristics corresponding to the stored vector of characteristics iscalculated. During a step 414, the stored vector of characteristicsclosest to the vector of characteristics calculated during the step 412is determined and the associated information is retrieved.

In a variant, the vector of characteristics determined during the step404 is also stored on the document itself, in a robust way, i.e.resistant to copying, for example in a two-dimensional bar code or aDatamatrix (registered trademark), preferably encrypted for securityreasons. In this case, the document can be authenticated by comparing anindex of similarity between the two vectors of characteristics and athreshold value, pre-defined or itself stored in the bar code, during astep 416.

In order to store information in the VCDP, you can, for example, definetwo possible shapes, two positions or two dimensions for each of thedots, inside the cell assigned to it, so as to store one bit per area. Abit value (“0” or “1”) is assigned to each position, dimension or shape.

With reference to FIG. 5, which illustrates a VCDP with two sizes ofdots, the small-size dots (2×2 pixels) can, for example, represent bitvalue “0”, and the large-size dots (3×3 pixels) can represent bit value“1”.

Thus, for a VCDP with 100 cells, 100 bits can be stored withoutredundancy. In order to detect and/or correct errors, use of anerror-detecting and/or error-correcting code is desirable.

For the case in which the position is used to represent a binary value,it is preferable that the positions corresponding to each of the twovalues are separated from each other. A possible method for ensuring theseparation of the two positions consists of dividing a cell into twoequal-sized parts corresponding to the two bit values, and assigning aposition pseudo-randomly in the area corresponding to the bit to becoded. It is noted that a dot's position in a cell can represent morethan one binary value, because of the multiplicity of possiblepositions. For example, as was seen above, this position can represent 8bits over 289 different positions, or 6 bits if one position out of twoin each direction is excluded, so as to limit the risk of error ininterpreting the position during reading.

On reading the VCDP, you determine a search area around a dot's twopossible positions for each sub-cell. In order to determine which of thetwo sub-cells contains the dot, you determine the minimum luminancevalue for each of the two sub-cells: the area having the lowestluminance value is considered to be the one in which the dot has beeninserted. In a variant, a weight can be assigned to each bit value,according to the difference or ratio of luminance between each of thetwo sub-cells.

In variants:

-   -   the dot's presence or absence in the cell is used to represent        an information bit (used below in the “grids”);    -   more than one binary value is represented through more than two        possible positions of a dot per cell;    -   more than one binary value is represented through more than two        possible dimensions of a dot per cell;    -   more than one binary value is represented through more than two        possible shapes of a dot per cell and/or    -   the message is encrypted before being encoded.

With respect to integration with other digital authentication codes, theVCDPs can be integrated with digital authentication codes so as to offeran additional layer of protection and/or an unobtrusive means oftracking documents. FIG. 8 shows a secured information matrix 155, whichcomprises, in its center, an area is which a VCDP 156 is inserted. FIG.9 shows a secured information matrix 160, which is surrounded by a VCDP161. It is noted that, in this latter case, the elements allowing thedigital authentication code 160 to be located, for example its corners,can be used to locate and determine the approximate positions of thedots of VCDP 161.

In embodiments, means of identifying the VCDP through unobtrusive marksare utilized. In effect, in certain cases it can be desirable for theidentifying marks to be more unobtrusive than a border, so that theposition, even the presence, of a VCDP can be difficult to detect: forexample, limited or broken border marks or corner marks can be inserted,or a digital authentication code or other associated symbols can be usedto identify it.

If the same dot pattern is repeated several times, for example bytiling, dots can be identified and located with auto-correlation andcross-correlation techniques, such as the technique described in M.Kutter's article, “Watermarking resisting to translation, rotation andscaling”, Proc. of SPIE: Multimedia systems and applications, Volume3528, pp. 423-431, Boston, USA, November, 1998.

Another way of introducing unobtrusive reference marks into the VCDPconsists of inserting cells constituted of a set of dots with easilyidentifiable shape characteristics. For example, if you want a dot toserve as a reference, you insert a significant number of dotsneighboring a reference dot in order to obtain an easily identifiablecluster of dots. FIG. 10 illustrates a VCDP 165 the four corners 166 ofwhich consist of a cell comprising a central dot and four very closeneighboring dots, forming the corners of a square centered on thecentral dot. For detection, you start by detecting all the dots over asufficient surface area, which will serve as “candidates”. Then, foreach dot, you determine the number of its neighbors at a distance lessthan or equal to a pre-defined distance. This can be done rapidly if thecandidate dots are arranged on a grid, which allows the number ofneighbors in a window to be counted rapidly. You retain a limited numberof candidates, for example six candidates, that have the greatest numberof neighbors. Known geometric techniques can then be used in order todetermine which are the candidates corresponding to the reference dots,in this case the corners of the VCDP. For the VCDP 165, you know, forexample, that three valid candidates must form a right-angles isoscelestriangle.

Another way of introducing unobtrusive reference marks consists ofinserting dots based on a line. FIG. 11 illustrates a VCDP 170 with, onthe edges, lines 171 bearing a larger number of dots than the paralleldots located inside the VCDP 170. These edge lines can be detected bydifferent line detection algorithms, for example by applying the Houghtransform, and/or by applying a Sobel filter allowing the noise to befiltered.

In a variant, you apply tiling of the same VCDP or different VCDPscomprising lines of dots or identifiable marks, for example clusters ofdots as illustrated in FIG. 10.

In a preferential embodiment, a VCDP is arranged in the form of aregular grid. In effect, in certain cases it can be advantageous toduplicate the VCDP, by tiling, over a large surface area, even over thewhole of the document to be protected. In this way you make it verydifficult, even impossible, to destroy a VCDP and you increaseflexibility concerning the image capture position. In particular, thesame VCDP can be inserted several times by tiling. Equally, a VCDP atleast partially different from all the other VCDPs can be inserted. Themeans of identification described above can be used so as to becorrectly positioned to read the VCDP. However, in practice, thereference, synchronization or identification elements can be difficultto detect correctly.

As will be seen below, you can make detection easier by arranging thedots in the form of a grid. The dots are inserted at regular intervals,for example with a space of between 4 and 12 pixels in each direction.On the basis of this principle, there are several ways of representingthe information:

-   -   the presence or absence of a dot allows an information bit to be        represented, as in VCDP 175 illustrated in FIG. 12, in which the        presence of a dot corresponds to bit value ‘1’, and its absence        to bit value ‘0’;    -   the size, the shape or an offset of a magnitude less than at        least one dimension of the VCDP's dots allows information to be        represented. For example, the selection of the dot, from four        shapes or four dimension selections, makes it possible to        represent, at each dot of a VCDP 180, two information bits, as        illustrated in FIG. 14, which represents, enlarged, a detail of        the VCDP 180. It is noted that this VCDP's dots can take        dimensions, in pixels (the first figure indicates the height and        the second the width), of 1×1, 2×2, 1×2 and 2×1 pixels        corresponding respectively to the bit values “00”, “01”, “10”        and “11”. Many other combinations and shapes of dots are, of        course, possible.

In a variant, on the principle of a perfectly regular grid, a slightdisplacement of a dot allows information to be represented. For example,displacing a dot making a surface area of at least two pixels,displacing a pixel horizontally and/or vertically allows two informationbits to be represented. Many other possibilities are, of course,possible. Note that such a displacement of dots does not significantlymodify the geometric characteristics, and therefore the advantages, ofusing a grid, especially in terms of identification.

A grid lends itself particularly well to determining the angle ofrotation and resizing factor applied to the captured image. In effect,in particular you can make use of a Hough transform of the image, ormake use of the determination of energy peaks in the Fourier space. FIG.13 is a representation of the absolute value of the two-dimensionalFourier transform of the grid of FIG. 12, in which the light value dotscorrespond to energy peaks. The detection of these energy peaks enablesthe person skilled in the art to calculate the image's resizing factorand angle of rotation, allowing the latter to receive normalizeddimensions, with a view to their processing.

Once the image's rotation and scale are known and, possibly, corrected,you determine the translation value, i.e. the displacement to be appliedto the image so as to align the dots of the grid correctly. There arevarious possible methods for this. Common to all of them is fixing thevalues of a set of the grid's dots, which are, subsequently, looked forso as to align the grid. For example, the values of a set of dots,chosen pseudo-randomly according to a key, can be fixed. Across-correlation between the grid's captured and corrected image and animage generated from values of known dots, generates a peak ofcorrelation at the position corresponding to the displacement of thegrid.

With regard to the writing algorithm, a large number of methods known tothe person skilled in the art are possible. As an example, assume thatthere is a grid, tiled or not, of 20×20 cells based on the followinghypotheses: printing is done at 600 dots per inch, and 1% of the surfacearea can be marked (to minimize the visual impact of the marking), whichmakes, on average, one dot every 10 pixels, in each direction. The tileis therefore originally 200×200 pixels; the means of image captureproduces images of 640×480 pixels at the capture resolution of 720pixels per inch. It is noted that you are assured that at least one tilewill be fully contained in the captured image.

As input, a message, for example of 8 bytes, a cryptographic key and ascrambling key (the two keys may be identical) are received during astep 502. The message is encrypted during a step 504. Optionally,error-detecting bits can be added to it, for example two bytes making itpossible to reduce the risk of error decoding the message by a factor of2 to the power 16, during a step 506. From the encrypted messageconcatenated with the error-detecting code, 10 bytes in our example, themessage robust to errors is calculated, for example by applying aconvolutional code, during a step 508. For a convolutional code of ratetwo with a memory of seven, for eight bytes on input, a code taking 142bits is obtained. If you have 20×20 dots=400 positions, this message canbe replicated two times, thus obtaining a replicated message of 284bits, during a step 510. Thus, you have 400−284=116 unused positions,which will be used for storing the synchronization bits used ondetection for aligning the tile, as described below. The replicatedmessage is scrambled during a step 512, i.e. in sequence, swapped andtransformed by an exclusive-OR function. The swap and the bit valuesused in the exclusive-OR function are calculated from the scramblingkey. In this way, 284 scrambled bits are obtained.

The 116 synchronization bits are generated pseudo-randomly from a key,and their position can also be determined pseudo-randomly, so that theyare uniformly distributed in the tile, during a step 514.

The VCDP's image is simply modulated by adding to the positions defineda dot for the bit ‘1’ (there is no modification for the bit ‘0’).Clearly, the dot can be composed to have a variable position, shapeand/or one or two dimensions, according to the methods seen previously.

If you want to cover a large surface area, the tiles are added one afteranother, during a step 516. You can then, according to the variants,always use the same tile or make the message change for each tile. In anexample of this second variant, one part of the message can remainfixed, while another part, for example a byte, is randomly determinedfor each tile. You can also apply a random rotation, a multiple of 90degrees, to each tile, so as to make a counterfeiter's attempts toanalyze the code more difficult. In addition, you can randomly insertsynchronization bits or their inverse, i.e. for the synchronization bitsyou inverse the positions where a dot is inserted. The advantage of thislatter approach is that the number of possible configurations increaseswithout the reading becoming more complex, as will be seen. Inconsidering the variations of orientation, you can therefore have 8possible configurations for the synchronization bits, which makes theiranalysis more complex in the context of an attack by a counterfeiter.

The 200×200 grid of our example can be replicated, as described above.

The VCDP is then inserted into the print films and the document isprinted, during a step 518.

With regard to the reading algorithm, you carry out:

-   -   a step 548 of capturing an image of the document,    -   a pre-processing step 550: pre-processing the image can be        advantageous, especially for the following step of determining        candidate dots. You want, through the pre-processing, to remove        the spurious noises and illumination deviations. The application        of an omni-directional high-pass filter, whose result is        weighted with the initial image, makes it possible, for example,        to reduce the illumination deviations, and the application of a        median filter makes it possible to reduce the noise of isolated        pixels;    -   the candidate dots are determined, during a step 552: the        candidate dots correspond to image pixels whose luminance is a        value below a threshold. This threshold is, for example, a        percentage of the histogram, such as 1%, so that at most 1% of        the pixels are candidate dots. The candidates that are too close        (for example, a distance of less than five pixels) are        eliminated, so that only those having the lowest value in the        region are kept;    -   during a step 554, the vectors of neighboring candidate dots are        determined and the angle of rotation and scale factor are        estimated: a limit value is given for the distance between        neighbors, and all the pairs of dots having a distance less than        this threshold are listed. It this threshold is low enough only        the four direct neighbors of a dot may be associated in a        vector, otherwise the indirect neighbors (diagonally) may be        associated. It is preferable to avoid having non-neighboring        dots associated. To do this, you avoid a threshold value that is        too high. You can then estimate the angle of rotation by        bringing the angle of each of the vectors to a value between 0        and 90 degrees;    -   if the indirect neighbors are included, during a step 556, the        vectors are separated into two groups according to their size        (which is greater by a factor of the square root of two for the        indirect neighbors), and you subtract 45 degrees from the angle        calculated for the indirect neighbors. The scale factor can also        be estimated by measuring the average distance between dots of a        single group, divided by the distance in the original image if        that is known;    -   in an option, during a step 558, the image is restored to form        an image without rotation, in its original size or a whole        multiple of its original size;    -   during a step 560, a matrix is extracted representing the values        represented by the dots: the average distance between the dots,        for example 10 pixels, and the dimension of the reconstructed        image, for example 500×500 pixels, are known. A table with 50        lines×50 columns is therefore generated that will be used to        store the message's estimated values, given that the        relationship between the dimensions of the reconstructed image        and the estimated distance between the dots correspond to a        maximum threshold over the number of dots present in the image.        In reality, if the grid of dots in the captured image had a        significant angle of rotation, the number of dots in the        reconstituted image will probably be significantly lower.    -   in order to fill this table with the estimated values of the        message, during a step 562 you search for a starting dot for        scanning the image. This dot can be, for example, the first        candidate dot detected in the top left of the image, or the        candidate dot with the highest probability of being a dot (for        example the dot with the lowest grey scale). It is noted that it        is important not to make a mistake in the dot selection; an        error can have unfortunate consequences for the rest of the        calculations. You can proceed by iteration on the chosen        starting dot if the following steps of reading the message are        unsuccessful. A value is stored in the table for the selected        dot, for example its grey scale, or its lowest grey scale value,        in a certain area around the central position, so as to avoid an        erroneous measurement if the dot's estimated position is        slightly offset with respect to the actual position, this offset        being due to pseudo-random offsets intended to detect the        presence of a copy or being due to any other imprecision in        positioning. The value is stored in the corresponding position        in the table, the positions of which in our examples go from        (0,0) to (49,49): for example in position (0,0) of the starting        dot is the first dot in the top left, or in position (32,20) if        the starting dot with the highest probability is at position        (322,204). All the image's positions from the starting dot are        then scanned, storing the value found for each dot in the        corresponding position in the table;    -   during a step 564 the grid is aligned: in general, the value        table is offset with respect to the start of the tile. To negate        this offset, you use the known bit values, i.e. the        synchronization bits, which enable the offset to be determined.        Thus, the known synchronization bits can be correlated with the        table of values, for each possible offset, and for the four        possible general orientations (0, 90, 180 or 270 degrees). The        largest correlation value determines the offset and the general        orientation. Alternatively, this could be the lowest or the        absolute correlation value, if a tile is printed in negative,        with respect to another tile. In the case in which the        synchronization bits or their inverse have apparently been        inserted randomly, the highest absolute correlation value is        used to determine the offset. The correlation can be performed        in the Fourier domain in order to reduce the quantity of        calculations. It is noted that the tiles can also be delimited        by continuous lines or by special concentrations of dots, which        can serve as a guide for alignment;    -   during a step 566 you reconstruct the scrambled message: the        scrambled message can then be reconstructed. For example, if        this is contained in a 20×20 grid, a 20×20 matrix is generated        and the values found are inserted into it. The rest of the        decoding of the message can be carried out using standard prior        state of the art methods. Once the scrambled message has been        calculated, the inverse of the operations described in the        reading algorithm described above are applied.    -   during a step 568, optional, like other measurements, if the        grid has special characteristics allowing copies to be detected,        for example the precise position or the size of the dots, these        characteristics can be measured over the determined grid so as        to make a decision about the nature of the document (original or        copy) or the unique characterization/identification of the        document.

FIG. 21 represents an enlarged part of a high-density VCDP, each line ofa matrix of dots making up this VCDP noticeably bearing as many blackdots as white background, these representing, or not, coded information.In the upper line 185 the lateral position of each dot is variable,whereas, in the lower line 186, the dimensions of the dots are variable,in this case between two values corresponding to 3×3 generation pixelsand 2×2 generation pixels. It is understood that such VCDPs present anadvantage of compactness in inserting a given number of dots in adocument while benefitting from the advantages of the variation indimension(s), position and/or shape, the average magnitude of which isof the order of magnitude of at least one dimension of a part of thedots and, for preference, less than this dimension. As is easilyunderstood, at least the half of this VCDP's dots are not juxtaposed tofour other dots. In contrast, less than half of the dots do not touchanother dot.

FIG. 22 represents an enlarged part of a dot dimension gradient VCDP190. This part corresponds to a corner of a VCDP in which, throughsuccessive rings, here the thickness of one line but, in practice, ofseveral lines, the dimensions of the dots are reduced. For example, thedots' dimensions are 6×6 pixels for the bordering ring at the bottomright of the part represented in FIG. 22, then 5×5 pixels for the nextring, then 4×4 pixels and so on.

Thanks to this particular disposition, for at least one of the rings theaverage magnitude of the unpredictable variations, dot by dot, of atleast one geometric characteristic of the dots is of the same order ofmagnitude as one dimension of the dots of this ring.

It is understood that such VCDPs present an advantage of compactness ininserting a given number of dots in a document while benefitting fromthe advantages of the variation in dimension(s), position and/or shape,the average magnitude of which is of the order of magnitude of at leastone dimension of a part of the dots and, for preference, less than thisdimension.

FIG. 15 illustrates a particular embodiment of the device that is thesubject of this invention. This device 201, for example a micro-computerand its various peripherals, comprises a communications interface 218linked to a communications network 202 able to transmit and receivedigital data. The device 201 also comprises a means of storage 214 suchas, for example, a hard disk. It also comprises a floppy-disk reader215. The floppy disk 224 can contain data to be processed or beingprocessed as well as the code of a program implementing the presentinvention, code that, once read by the device 101, is stored on the harddisk 114. According to a variant, the program enabling the device toutilize the present invention is stored in read-only memory 110 (calledROM, acronym for “read-only memory”). In a second variant, the programmay be received in order to be stored in the same way as that describedabove by means of the communications network 202.

The device 201 has a screen 212 making it possible to view theprocessing results and interact with the device, for example by means ofgraphical interfaces. By means of the keyboard 213, the user can supplydata, surface areas, densities, resolutions, values of parameters orkeys, or make implementation choices. The central processing unit 211(called “CPU”, acronym for “central processing unit”, on the drawing)executes the instructions relating to the utilization of the invention,instructions stored in the read-only memory 210 or in the other storageelements. During powering up, the programs relating to the utilizationof the device that is the subject of this invention stored innon-volatile memory, for example ROM 210, are transferred into therandom-access memory RAM 217, which then contains the executable code ofthe program that is the subject of this invention and the registers formemorizing the variables required for utilizing the invention.Obviously, the floppy disks 224 can be replaced by any data carrier suchas a compact disk or a memory card. More generally, a means of storinginformation, readable by a computer or a microprocessor, integrated ornot to the device, possible removable, memorizes a program utilizing theprocess that is the subject of this invention. The communications bus221 enables communication between the various elements included in themicro-computer 201 or linked to it. The representation of the bus 221 isnot limiting and, in particular, the central processing unit 211 iscapable of communicating instructions to any element of themicro-computer 201 directly or by means of another element of themicro-computer 201.

1. A document identification method, comprising: a step of generating adigital image; a step of marking the digital image on a plurality ofdocuments to form the digital image as a mark on each document of saidplurality of documents with unique variations on each document, saidunique variations being due to individually unpredictable markingerrors, a majority of the marks formed on said documents presenting aphysical anti-copy characteristic satisfying a pre-defined criterionsuch that said characteristic of the majority of the copies that can beproduced based on the marks do not satisfy said pre-defined criterion; astep of characterizing said unique variations to form a unique imprintof the mark formed for each said document; and a step of memorizing saidunique imprint.
 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein said imageonly comprises two colors.
 3. The method according to claim 2, whereinsaid image is designed to be degraded during copying of a documentobtained by the marking step.
 4. The method according to claim 1,wherein, during the step of characterizing said unique variations, afrequency analysis is utilized, the unique imprint being representativeof the frequency analysis of an image of the marked image.
 5. The methodaccording to claim 4, wherein said image is designed to be degradedduring copying of a document obtained by the marking step.
 6. The methodaccording to claim 1, wherein, during the step of characterizing saidunique variations, a secret key is utilized.
 7. The method according toclaim 6, wherein said image is designed to be degraded during copying ofa document obtained by the marking step.
 8. The method according toclaim 1, wherein, during the step of memorizing, the imprint is storedin a database.
 9. The method according to claim 1, wherein, during thestep of memorizing, the document is marked with a mark representing theimprint affixed individually on the document.
 10. The method accordingto claim 9, wherein said mark representing the imprint is encrypted. 11.The method according to claim 10, wherein the encryption utilized toencrypt the imprint uses a public key.
 12. The method according to claim1, wherein said digital image is a matrix of cells, and during the stepof generating the image, an original matrix of cells is formed.
 13. Themethod according to claim 1, wherein during the step of characterizingsaid unique variations to form a unique imprint of the mark formed, theimprint is based on a distribution of unpredictable errors in said mark.14. A document processing method, comprising: a step of capturing animage of a mark printed on said document; a step of extracting aphysical anti-copy characteristic of said image; a step of determiningwhether said characteristic satisfies a pre-determined criterion; a stepof extracting unique variations of said printed mark by processing saidimage; a step of determining an imprint of said unique variations; astep of determining whether said determined imprint corresponds to animprint memorized in a memory; and if said determined imprintcorresponds to a memorized imprint, a step of extracting identificationinformation associated with the memorized imprint from said memory. 15.The method according to claim 14, wherein, during the step of extractingunique variations, frequency analysis is utilized.
 16. The methodaccording to claim 14, wherein, during the step of determining whethersaid imprint corresponds to a memorized imprint, a mark representing theimprint affixed individually on the document is read.
 17. The methodaccording to claim 16, wherein said mark representing the imprint isdecrypted.
 18. The method according to claim 14, wherein, during thestep of determining whether said imprint corresponds to a memorizedimprint, the imprints are such that for each document, for each imprint,at least 5.5 percents of the points of said marked image formed on saiddocument are different from points of said marked image formed onanother one document of said plurality of documents, for a majority ofthe other documents of said plurality of documents.
 19. The methodaccording to claim 12, wherein during the step of marking, said digitalimage is marked with a resolution that is such that at least two percentof the cells of said mark formed on the document are erroneous, due toindividually unpredictable marking errors, as compared with the digitalmatrix of cells.
 20. The method according to claim 12, wherein, duringthe step of marking, said digital image is marked with a resolution thatis such that, for each document, a correlation coefficient between thecells of said marked image formed on said document and the cells of saidmarked image formed on another one document of said plurality ofdocuments is between 0.693% and 0.945% for a majority of the otherdocuments of said plurality of documents, due to the unique variationsof each one of said marks on said documents.